Why Are Gender Reforms Adopted in Singapore? Party Pragmatism and Electoral Incentives

In Singapore, the percentage of elected female politicians rose from 3.8 percent in 1984 to 22.5 percent after the 2015 general election. After years of exclusion, why were gender reforms adopted and how did they lead to more women in political office? Unlike South Korea and Taiwan, this paper shows that in Singapore party pragmatism rather than international diffusion of gender equality norms, feminist lobbying, or rival party pressures drove gender reforms. It is argued that the ruling People’s Action Party’s (PAP) strategic and electoral calculations to maintain hegemonic rule drove its policy u-turn to nominate an average of about 17.6 percent female candidates in the last three elections. Similar to the PAP’s bid to capture women voters in the 1959 elections, it had to alter its patriarchal, conservative image to appeal to the younger, progressive electorate in the 2000s. Additionally, Singapore’s electoral system that includes multi-member constituencies based on plurality party bloc vote rule also makes it easier to include women and diversify the party slate. But despite the strategic and electoral incentives, a gender gap remains. Drawing from a range of public opinion data, this paper explains why traditional gender stereotypes, biased social norms, and unequal family responsibilities may hold women back from full political participation.

新加坡缘何实行性别改革？：政党实用主义和选举激励

关键词：性别改革， 政党实用主义， 相对多数政党全额连记，多议席选区，族群配额，人民行动党，新加坡。 

女性在新加坡当选政治家中的比例从1984年的3.8%上升到2015年大选后的22.5%。长期排斥女性的新加坡为什么会进行性别改革，而这些改革又是怎样导致更多女性占据政治职位的？ 本论文表明，不同于韩国或台湾，驱动新加坡性别改革的是政党实用主义，而非性别平等规范的国际扩散、女权主义者游说或是竞争党派实施压力等因素。本文提出，执政的人民行动党出于维护具有说服力的统治地位的战略和选举考量而采取了一百八十度的政策大转弯，在最近的三次选举中平均每次提名了17.6%的女性候选人。类似于该党在1959年大选中为获取女性选民选票而采取的做法，在新千年中人民行动党不得不改变其父权制和保守的形象来取悦更年轻更有进步性的选民。此外，新加坡选举制度采用的是基于相对多数政党全额连记体系的多议席选区制， 这使得将妇女列入政党候选人名单而使其多样化更为简单易行。然而，尽管选举政治中存在着这些有利于女性代表的策略性和选举性的动机，性别鸿沟依然巨大。本文利用一系列民意数据，阐释了传统的性别刻板印象、带有偏见的社会规范以及不平等的家庭责任分配为什么会依然阻碍着妇女的全面政治参与。

Translated from English by Li Guo