New Mobilities in Asia. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2022. 154 pp. US$105.00, cloth. ISBN 9789463722469.
The recent surge in mainland Chinese migrants to Singapore has prompted a reexamination of the concept of Chinese identity within the island-state. Sylvia Ang, through ethnographic observations, delves into the everyday interactions between local ethnic Chinese and newcomers from the mainland, revealing a growing skepticism towards overarching narratives of a unified Chinese identity. The tension between civilizational and national discourses creates diverse norms and manifestations of Chinese identity, challenging the notion of a singular ethnic definition.
Ang’s study, divided into six chapters and a concise conclusion, begins by addressing the gap in co-ethnic politics within social science studies. The introduction highlights the impact of mainland Chinese migrants on the contested identity among co-ethnics in Singapore. In an era dominated by rising China, nationalist discourse globally promotes a homogeneous Chinese identity based on ethno-racial terms. However, within Singapore, where ethnic Chinese constitute the majority, encounters with PRC nationals generate conflicting perspectives on contemporary Chinese identity, influenced by nationality, gender, and class.
Chapter 1 traces the evolution of Chinese ethnicity in modern Singapore, exploring the government’s efforts to downplay Chineseness in its pursuit of a multicultural Asian society. But the ascent of China and business opportunities caused Singapore to re-Sinicize its majority population, including promoting education in the Mandarin language. Despite Singapore’s attempts to manipulate ethnic identification, the changing fortunes of modern China continue to influence local identity politics. The subsequent chapters employ ethnographic details to illuminate daily frictions and criticisms arising from differing expectations of Chinese identity in Singapore.
Chapter 2 explores hierarchical thinking and discourses about ethnicity, emphasizing the distinctions between the Singapore-Chinese middle class and working-class mainland migrants. The local middle-class Chinese have a stake in setting themselves apart from “working-class” mainland migrants seen to embody their home country’s “third-world status,” as the latter have less claim to citizenship in the island-nation.
Chapter 3 focuses on the centrality of masculinity in defining Chinese identity, examining the public perception of PRC male migrants as “low quality.” The unfavourable perception of migrant masculinity highlights the association of their perceived shortcomings with a lack of westernized human capital, often attributed to mainland Chinese individuals. In protest, migrant men have asserted that they possess higher Chinese cultural values than their counterparts in Singapore society.
Chapter 4 expands on mainland Chinese criticisms of the cultural shortcomings of Singapore Chinese, including their inability to speak Mandarin with fluency. Locals insist on “other ways of being Chinese,” countering that to be English speaking (and thus differently educated) is part of being Singaporean Chinese. They prefer a “sanitized” version of Chineseness, stripped of perceived backward attributes associated with PRC Chinese.
Chapter 5 discusses the contested Chinese identity in community spaces, illuminating clashing imaginations of what Geylang’s Chinatown should represent. China-born migrants tend to prefer “self-orientalizing” forms associated with a rejuvenated Chinese world. By contrast, Singaporean Chinese reject an image of “olden-day China,” and instead want the township to showcase the global aspirations of their city-state.
The conclusion summarizes Ang’s argument that ethnicity is not a unified or stable entity, but one in constant reconstruction in an age of flows and globalized contexts. She maintains that her approach provides insights into how hierarchical biases and inequities are embedded in the (re)imagination of ethnicity as people grapple with gains and losses of cultural, political, and geographical displacements.
While Ang’s study provides valuable insights into intra-ethnic conflicts and biases, there is a notable absence of data on interactions and comments from upper-class migrants from China. The most recent wave of PRC newcomers are the super rich, who are welcomed for bringing capital to Singapore. One wonders whether the high-class status of affluent migrants will override local distaste for mainland Chinese ways. The inclusion of this perspective could offer a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics shaped by the intersection of wealth, class, and Chinese identity in Singapore. Additionally, in a world witnessing unprecedented flows of rich PRC migrants, the study prompts questions about whether intra-ethnic hostilities will take a backseat to shaping images of multinational Chinese.
Finally, the study encourages an interrogation of ethnicity in a post-ethnic world, questioning the need to unpack or even discard the concept of ethnicity. Ang notes that several other authors have argued that ethnicity is a process in particular contexts (20) and by mixing two ostensibly similar ethnic groups, she highlights tensions and conflicts between them.
Perhaps Ang too readily uses the term “co-ethnics,” considering historical cases where dialect groups in China did not permit cross-language marriages and the many instances of division among Chinese communities around the world. Such empirical cases caution against using a robust “ethnic” label from an outdated social science typology.
Indeed, as Ang notes, the mainland authorities use different terms: zhonghua minzu for PRC citizens, and huaren to designate overseas Chinese of diverse nationalities. Such emic terms highlight the intersection of cultural and national identities, and we should not be surprised by contesting viewpoints of people in diaspora whose mixed heritage may include only a shadow or thin version of an assumed common ancestry. The above comments aside, this study underscores the importance of recognizing the intersection of cultural and national identities, acknowledging the varied viewpoints within diasporic communities with mixed heritage.
In conclusion, Sylvia Ang’s study offers a nuanced exploration of Chinese identity in Singapore, shedding light on the complexities and contradictions within the concept of ethnicity. It encourages a broader dialogue on the fluidity and contingent nature of identity in a globalized context.
Aihwa Ong
University of California, Berkeley