Stratification and Inequality Series, v. 12. Balwyn North, Vic.: Trans Pacific Press; Portland, OR: distributed by International Specialized Book Services, 2011. xii, 217 pp. (Figures, tables.) US$34.95, paper. ISBN 978-1-920901-15-8.
This edited volume by Ken-ichi Ohbuchi and Nobuko Asai grapples with the thorny issues of inequality, discrimination and conflict in Japan. There are ten chapters that approach these problems from cross-cultural perspectives on fairness, economic inequalities, social class, occupational prestige, welfarism, patriotism and nationalism, sexism, coping strategies, communities, and pro-social behaviours. The first section of the volume organizes the papers under the theme of “social stratification and the sense of justice,” while the second part addresses the theme of “conflict and cooperation in social relations.” The book showcases the latest theoretical and empirical studies by Japanese researchers on conflict resolution. The common thread linking all the chapters is the notion of social justice.
In chapter 1, E. Allan Lind explores inequality, discrimination and conflict in Japan through the theoretical literature on the psychology of fairness. Lind provides a discussion of how fairness and justice-linked phenomenon are seen cross-culturally, but explains that there are important differences in how members of particular cultures interpret and respond to these principles. In chapter 2, Nobuyoshi Kawashima investigates how rising economic inequalities are influencing people’s sense of fairness. Kawashima divides fairness into “micro” and “macro” levels. A micro sense of fairness corresponds to feelings of being treated fairly as an individual, while a macro sense of fairness corresponds to thoughts that society is fair in general. Through survey research the author argues that growing economic inequality is decreasing people’s sense of fairness on both levels. However, the higher an individual’s social and economic status, the greater the chance they see society as generally fair. In chapter 3, Ken-ichi Ohbuchi investigates how social class is influenced by attitudes on social fairness, collectivism and traditional values. The author tests the hypothesis that Japanese favour an equal distribution of resources. However, his survey findings suggest that while Japanese generally support distribution according to need, there are class differences. Lower classes tend to prefer equality where resources are more evenly distributed. Conversely, higher classes tend to favour equity, where people are rewarded according to ability. Ohbuchi also looks at attitudes towards collective behaviour and beliefs in “tradition” values. Here too he was able to demonstrate that the lower classes identify with values considered more “traditional.” In chapter 4, Yoshiya Shiotani examines how people’s occupational prestige translates into a form of invisible inequality. Through a literature review, Shiotani approaches the significance of occupations through the perspective of social stratification research that emphasizes occupations as an important indicator of social status. In chapter 5, Jun Matsuyama provides a theoretical discussion of how welfarism and distributive justice operate in Japan. The author suggests that contemporary theories of disparity and poverty must better account for the diversity of individuals and the role of individual responsibility.
In chapter 6, Tomohiro Kumagai examines how group identification influences perspectives on fair treatment between different groups. Through survey research, the author discusses how patriotism and nationalism influence intergroup conflict differently. In chapter 7, Takehiro Yamamoto and Ken-ichi Ohbuchi explore how “benevolent sexism” contributes to maintaining the gender gap. The chapter examines behaviours that on the surface seem to be beneficial to women, but are ultimately undermining. In chapter 8, Nobuko Asai addresses how people cope with discrimination. Through an empirical study the author investigates the strategies people use for dealing with discrimination at the cognitive level. She argues that in order to maintain their mental health, disadvantaged group members may avoid acknowledging personal experiences of discrimination, or recognize its existence for other members of their group, but downplay their own experiences of discriminations. In chapter 9, Hiroyuki Hikichi examines the relationship between local communities and social inequalities. The author investigates the breakdown of intra-community cooperation and commitment. With an orientation towards reviving local communities as spaces of support, the chapter examines some of the economic and socio-psychological factors that both hinder and contribute to effective community building. In chapter 10, Toshiaki Aoki discusses how to encourage pro-social behaviour that builds better social environments. The author identifies some of the mechanisms that contribute to cooperative behaviour that extend beyond rewards, to morals, norms, group identity and notions of fairness.
Publishing this volume in English represents an important effort by Japanese researchers to communicate their latest findings with a broader academic audience. Their effort should be applauded and encouraged. The opportunity to have access to some of the latest Japanese research in English makes this volume a valuable contribution in and of itself. The book will be of most interest to social psychologists with an interest in cross-cultural perspectives on fairness, those looking to understand how Japanese researchers investigate inequality, discrimination and conflict, and for those interested in empirical studies on Japanese attitudes towards the aforementioned issues. The papers in this volume provide theoretically sophisticated discussions and empirically grounded survey research.
However, qualitative researchers like anthropologists, sociologists, geographers and others will likely be unsatisfied with the lack of voices or concrete examples showing how discrimination is experienced by marginalized groups. There is a sizable English-language literature on the experiences of minority groups in Japan including the Ainu, Burakumin, Okinawans, resident Koreans, foreign populations, immigrants, the disabled and those stigmatized because of particular illnesses. This volume gives scant attention to these minorities. These are the groups who arguably face the brunt of discrimination in Japan. Nor is it clear whether some of the papers even considered these minorities in designing their studies. There is a chapter devoted to gender discrimination, but the narrow focus on “benevolent sexism” will likely also leave gender specialists wanting a more robust treatment of the innumerable obstacle facing women. The key weakness of the volume is that it focuses almost exclusively on theoretical discussions and the results of survey research without delving into how people experience inequality, discrimination and conflict in Japan. Theoretical discussions and survey research are, of course, important and necessary. However, over-emphasizing theory and the results of survey research elevates the discussion to an unnecessarily abstract level for issues that are, unfortunately, experienced all too regularly for minorities in Japan.
Robin O’Day
University of Hawai‘i, Honolulu, USA
pp. 153-155