By Gennifer Weisenfeld. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2023. 400 pp. (Maps, B&W photos, coloured photos, illustrations.) US$60.00, cloth; US$60.00, ebook. ISBN 9780226816449.
In Gas Mask Nation, Gennifer Weisenfeld delves into an overlooked aspect of Japan’s World War II experience: the complex visual culture of civil air defense, or bōkū. Unlike the images of Kamikaze pilots and Banzai charges typical of Japan’s wartime history, Weisenfeld’s narrative centres on the daily realities of Japanese civilians. Indeed, the average Japanese citizen’s experience of war was defined by the threat of bombing, not the horror of the front lines more well known in Western audiences. Through an extensive exploration of artworks, photographs, films, and other media, Gas Mask Nation offers a nuanced portrayal of a society engaged in a constant balancing act between anxiety and normalcy.
Weisenfeld’s exploration of the roots of Japan’s civil air defense takes the reader back to a prewar consciousness, profoundly shaped by the catastrophic 1923 Kanto Earthquake. This event, etched deeply in the national psyche, served as a haunting precursor to the potential devastations of war, becoming a pivotal touchstone for those advocating for preparedness against air attack. The author highlights how air-defense drills, which commenced as early as 1928 in Osaka and 1932 in Tokyo, were not just governmental directives but were deeply interwoven into Japan’s cultural fabric. Various actors, including government officials, authors, and commercial entities, repeatedly invoked the 1923 earthquake’s memory to instill a sense of urgency and fear. This fear, in turn, motivated Japanese families to engage more deeply with the evolving culture of air defense.
Weisenfeld challenges the dominant perception of wartime Japan as solely a landscape of privation and sternness. In her detailed account, a vibrant, even whimsical, culture thrives beneath the surface of civil air defense. This culture is encapsulated in peculiar yet telling instances, children receiving caramels with paper gas masks, or fashion magazines featuring the latest trends in bōkū attire.
The role of civil air defense in social mobilization forms a key focus of Weisenfeld’s work, particularly in the context of the changing societal roles during wartime. Japan was no exception to the global trend of women stepping into roles traditionally held by men due to the demands of war. The author insightfully discusses how women naturally assumed leadership in bōkū due to the Japanese government’s emphasis of air defense as home-front defense. With the Japanese home the locus of air defense culture, commercial interests combined with defense priorities, often meeting in a bizarre middle ground.
Naturally, the book’s greatest strength is its rich compilation of visual media. Weisenfeld’s collection ranges from government propaganda and corporate advertisements to everyday items, demonstrating how civil air defense permeated Japanese society. The book even showcases how luxury cosmetics were marketed during air raids, with skin care framed as a wartime duty for the “brave wife” in Tokyo or Osaka.
The book’s exploration of aviation as an alluring yet foreboding force in Japanese culture is particularly compelling. Weisenfeld illustrates Japan’s dualistic relationship with aircraft: as symbols of modernity and progress, yet also as harbingers of destruction. This dichotomy is vividly depicted in various cultural expressions, from advertisements featuring sleek, futuristic Japanese aircraft bombing China, to children’s games centred around learning about aviation.
Yet, the most striking images of Gas Mask Nation are unsurprisingly those of gas masks themselves, embodying a complex and multifaceted symbol in wartime Japan. Weisenfeld deftly examines how these masks, typically associated with dehumanization, became deeply ingrained in various aspects of Japanese culture, transcending their practical function. The author reveals how gas masks, tools that on one hand strip away individuality and gender characteristics, were paradoxically marketed using a blend of sex appeal and cool—albeit mixed with instilling fear of a horrific death in the consumer. This duality underscores the gas mask’s role as a complicated item: one that was both feared and fetishized. Weisenfeld’s exploration into the mask’s integration into fashion, theatre, and everyday life underscores the adaptability of Japanese society, as it sought to normalize and even embrace these stark symbols of war.
This insightful examination inevitably brings to mind John Dower’s seminal work, Embracing Defeat. Dower’s exploration of postwar Japan, particularly the continuation and adaptation of certain cultural practices, resonates strongly with the themes presented by Weisenfeld. For instance, where children in wartime Japan engaged in bomb games, reflecting the pervasive militarism of the era, the postwar period saw them shift to playing Pan Pan (i.e., prostitute) games, illustrating a profound transition in societal norms and attitudes. This continuity of commercialization and commodification, as highlighted by Weisenfeld in the wartime period, persisted after Japan’s defeat, often in the very same Ginza-based department stores that had once catered to the wartime culture.
The book’s extensive use of visual material is its greatest strength. However, Weisenfeld’s narrative sometimes becomes muddled due to the thematic overlap between chapters. The wealth of visual examples is occasionally overshadowed by the historical narrative, which drifts into very interesting but at times tangential matters. This aside, Gas Mask Nation offers a profound and layered perspective on Japan’s wartime experience, revealing how the shadow of war and fascism intricately wove itself into the fabric of Japanese society. Weisenfeld masterfully demonstrates that this integration was not solely driven by political imperatives but also by commercial interests, with both sectors finding advantage in promoting a culture of air defense. Weisenfeld’s work challenges us to reconsider our understanding of how societies engage with war—not just in terms of sacrifice and endurance but through a complex interplay of adaptation, dehumanization, and commercialization. Gas Mask Nation is an invaluable addition to the literature of wartime Japan.
Ryan Ashley
The University of Texas, Austin