Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2018. 309 pp. (Tables, figures.) US$119.00, cloth. ISBN 978-3-319-69118-3.
Although the issue of shadow education in Japan has attracted the interest of researchers for decades, few scholars have explored this topic in as much detail as Stephen Entrich. In his book Shadow Education and Social Inequalities in Japan, Entrich presents the findings of work he conducted in Japan over a six-year period. As the title implies, the author is particularly interested in the effects of shadow education on students from different socio-economic
backgrounds. Observers of the Japanese education system frequently assume that shadow education inevitably contributes to social reproduction, but Entrich notes that those claims often lack empirical foundation.
The following question anchors Entrich’s research: “Does shadow education inherit the potential to function as an instrument to neutralize disadvantaged family background?” (14). To explore this question, the author analyzes data collected through the Hyogo High School Student (HHSS) survey, a questionnaire that has been carried out by a team of Japanese scholars since 1981. In addition, he designed and administered an instrument he labels the Juku Student and Teacher Survey (JSTS) in twenty cram schools. The information included in chapter 4 suggests that Entrich analyzed the data from both sources with great precision.
Shadow Education and Social Inequalities in Japan is divided into three sections. In the first third of the book, Entrich provides a theoretical and contextual framework for his research. This includes detailed information about the structure of the Japanese education system, the history of shadow education in Japan, and data from international achievement tests. To add depth to this discussion, the author connects his study of shadow education to a number of “theoretical concepts suited to explain the possible implications of shadow education investments on educational and social inequality formation in the Japanese context” (74). These include Rational Choice Theory, Shadow Education Investment Theory, and Neo-Institutionalist Theory. In subsequent chapters, Entrich applies these ideas to the survey data he analyzed.
The second section of the book includes four chapters that mine data from the two surveys referred to above for insights into four specific dimensions of shadow education: access, effects, persistence, and change. Each of these chapters begins with a discussion of the significance of the subtopic and the author’s reasons for focusing on that aspect of shadow education. Next, Entrich includes a theoretical framework, a description of the analytical tools used to investigate the topic, numerous tables that present the results of his analyses of the survey data, and a discussion that highlights the significance of the findings. The meticulous presentation and description of the data collected allows readers to draw their own conclusions about responses to the surveys, and to evaluate the validity of Entrich’s assertions.
The final two chapters of the book summarize the findings of the research project and look at the effects of shadow education in Japan from a broader perspective. Enrich acknowledges that juku in Japan have historically allowed socioeconomically privileged citizens to “preserve their status by achieving a competitive advantage” (264), but he also emphasizes that these schools have the potential to support less fortunate students. “We have to conclude,” the author posits, “that shadow in education inherits the potential to function as an instrument to neutralize disadvantaged family background—if certain conditions are met” (266). Adopting an optimistic tone, he specifies a number of approaches that could be used to expand the educational opportunities provided to children from disadvantaged backgrounds. For example, low-income parents need to make “purposeful and goal-oriented investments in shadow education” (267) at key points in their children’s academic careers. If such students “study very hard at home” (267), they could benefit from the opportunities afforded by shadow education. Cram school corporations, too, will need to take some responsibility for upending the status quo. Entrich asserts that juku corporations should offer discounts and tuition-free study rooms to socioeconomically challenged families whenever possible.
One of the most interesting findings presented in the final section of the book is that the shadow education system has remained quite robust in recent years, despite steadily decreasing numbers of school-aged children in Japan. Given the reduced number of high school graduates competing for spots in institutions of higher education, many predicted that the shadow education industry would suffer. According to Entrich, juku operators avoided this potential pitfall by revising the services they deliver to students. These adjustments include reducing class sizes; offering more individualized instruction; targeting new client groups; and providing more care, counselling, and guidance to their clients. In sum, juku have maintained their relevance by becoming more nimble and adaptive to the education marketplace.
Entrich rigorously explores the evolution of the shadow education industry in Japan. The book appears to have been adapted from a doctoral dissertation. Most chapters include an abstract, review of relevant literature, description of methods, presentation of data, and discussion of the findings. Structuring the volume in this way has its advantages and disadvantages. As a result of the way the chapters are organized, readers can review only the sections of the book that most interest them and still follow the author’s primary arguments. I did find, however, that Entrich incorporates some of the same ideas into multiple chapters, which can feel repetitious. For instance, he notes several times that Japan is a credentialist society, that Japanese parents generally regard shadow education as a “necessary evil,” and that students tend to have more influence over decisions related to shadow education as they get older.
Shadow Education and Social Inequalities in Japan explores changes in the juku industry in more detail than any other study of this topic that I have read. Stephen Entrich painstakingly analyzes survey data and provides a solid empirical foundation to support the conclusions he draws. His study of this topic provides support for conclusions drawn by researchers who studied the world of shadow education in previous eras, but also draws attention to interesting and unexpected ways that the juku industry has evolved over the past decade.
Christopher Bjork
Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, USA